Juneteenth (June 19, 1865)

Juneteenth is the national celebration of the end of slavery in Texas, June 19th 1865. It was on this day that the Major General Gordon Granger arrived in Galveston, Texas announcing the Civil War was over and all 250,000 slaves were now free. In 1863, Abraham Lincoln had already issued the Emancipation Proclamation, however, the plantation owners did not inform or free their slaves and just continued as normal, knowing there were not enough troops to enforce it.

The newly freed slaves were encouraged to stay with their former masters and work for a minimal wage but many quite rightly took charge and left. This was known as “the scatter”, large numbers went looking for family members or more tolerable places to live in northern regions.

On the anniversary of Juneteenth, freed slaves tried to celebrate in the parks, their efforts were halted due to newly formed segregation laws. Within a few years, former slaves were able to pool enough money to purchase 10 acres of land, which they called “Emancipation Park.” This was the only park and swimming pool in Houston they could use until the 1950’s. In 1980, Texas deemed Juneteenth a state holiday.

2. The Great Migration (1915 -1970)

The Great Migration was the mass movement of close to 6 million Southern blacks to the urban Northeast, Midwest and West states of America. The exodus was due to the restoration of white supremacy which established the Jim Crow laws. As well as poor economic conditions, the vast majority still worked the land to earn a meagre living.

The migration occurred around two major events, World War I and just after the Great Depression. The first wave took place between 1915-1940, 1.6 million black people settled in Chicago, Detroit, Pittsburgh, and New York. These were industry led areas with opportunities in steel mills, factories, tanneries and railroads, desperately in need of workers to replace those fighting in the war. Recruiters were even paying for travel expenses as a result of labour shortage.

The second wave during 1940-1970, was the greatest of the two, 5 million black people moved to cities such as Los Angeles, Oakland, Portland, Phoenix and Seattle. Many took on highly skilled jobs in the defence industry, paying them a very good income.

The impact across the United States was hugely significant to industry and culture. The migration was the largest movement of any ethnic group in American history. Although they moved for a better life, they were still faced with racism and prejudice. America experienced a number of devastating race riots, notably Chicago and many became increasingly politicised due to injustices.

Securing housing became a huge problem as white people found loop holes in the system to avoid renting or selling to blacks. Micro cities within cities emerged, giving birth to a new urban African-American cultural. The most prominent was Harlem, home to 200,000 during the 1920’s.

3. The Murder of Emmett Till (August 28, 1955)

In 1955, a 14 year old boy from Chicago by the name Emmett Till was visiting his cousins in Money, Mississippi. The boys took a walk (on what seemed to be the most ordinary of days) to the local grocery store, where Emmett allegedly whistled at 21 year old Carolyn Bryant, the proprietor and cashier.

Carolyn Bryant’s husband Roy was away at the time of the incident, on his return Carolyn told him how the young Emmett Till made lewd remarks and grabbed her waist - an action if were true would have violated the Jim Crow Laws. Bryant was so incensed by his wife’s story he and his half-brother J.W. Milam kidnapped Till, beat and mutilated him before dumping his body in the Tallahatchie River. Till’s body was discovered three days later.

Emmett Till’s body was returned to Chicago for his funeral, Mamie Till Bradley insisted on an open casket for the world to see her son’s body - mutilated, battered and bloated at the hands of racists. Jet Magazine attended the funeral, publishing photographs of the corpse, which quickly got picked up by mainstream media and became a national story.

Two weeks after the burial, the trial began with Milam and Bryant as defendants. On September 23rd, after just less than hour, both men were found “not guilty” by an all-white jury. The verdict sent shock waves throughout the black communities. The death of Emmett Till coupled with the court ruling was emblematic of how vulnerable they were and how little rights they had - particularly in the South. It galvanized a nation ready to fight and is widely considered the catalyst to the civil rights movement.

4. Civil Rights Act (1964)

The Civil Rights Act of 1964, is considered the crowning moment of civil rights movement. This comprehensive piece of legislation ended segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination based on colour, race, religion, sex or national origin.

Following the emancipation of slaves and Reconstruction (1865-77), black people lived in America with barely any rights. It took decades before Congress even established a civil rights section to the Justice Department. John F. Kennedy became President in 1961, civil rights was not initially high on his agenda, however with protests and riots in the South, he had no choice but to act.

Kennedy proposed the bill in 1963, although unable to get it passed through congress before his assassination. His successor, Lyndon B. Johnson, was intent on getting the Act passed, on July 2nd 1964, after one of the longest debates in Senate history, the bill was signed into law. Groups of white people opposed to the bill protested and no sooner had the ink dried, the act was constitutionally challenged. The Supreme Court upheld the bill in a test case Heart of Atlanta Motel vs US. The Civil Rights Act paved the way for the Voting rights Act of 1965 and the Fair Housing Act of 1968.

5. Shirley Chisholm for President (1972)

Shirley Anita Chisolm was the first African-American woman to be elected to Congress in 1968 and the first woman to run for President. Chisolm started her career as a nursery school teacher, and continued her studies to earn a Master’s from Columbia University in Early Childhood Education. In 1960 she became a consultant to the New York City Division of Care. Chisolm was very aware and understood the inequalities faced by women and ethnic minorities, she was determined to make a difference. So she joined local chapters of the NAACP, Urban League, as well as the Democratic Party Club in Bedford-Stuyvesant, Brooklyn.

In 1964, she decided to leave her career in education to pursue politics. In 1968 she ran a grassroots campaign, connecting with the people of her district, made up of mostly African-Americans and Puerto Ricans. Chisolm beat civil rights activist James Farmer, who she called an “outsider” to win a seat in Congress. Chisolm focused her attention on women’s rights, the marginalised and the underrepresented, introducing more than 50 pieces of legislation.

In 1972, Chisolm broke more barriers with yet another historical mark by becoming the first African-American and the first woman to be a major party candidate for U.S President. She had a strong following of students, women and ethnic minorities that helped her secure 10% of the total vote in a campaign that was under financed and with only one televised debate. In 1983, Shirley Chisolm retired from congress leaving a remarkable footprint. Undoubtedly, she should be remembered as an agent of change.